ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE ORIENTAL AND CLASSICAL

BY JOHN D. QUACKENBOS, A.M., M.D. ADJUNCT PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE, COLUMBIA COLLEGE

ACCOMPANIED WITH ENGRAVINGS AND COLORED MAPS

NEW EDITION REVISED AND CORRECTED

NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS 1890

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1878, by JOHN D. QUACKENBOS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. Copyright, 1889, by John D. Quackenbos.

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PREFACE.

The History of Literature, as a separate branch of the history of civilization, is of comparatively recent origin; the first work on the subject in any language dating no further back than the sixteenth century, and being little more than a crude catalogue of authors and their books. Yet who can deny the great importance of such history? When studied in connection with illustrative extracts from the masterpieces of which it treats, it furnishes a key to the intellectual development of our race, introduces us to the great minds that stand as beacon lights in successive ages, and with their wisdom widens the scope of knowledge, while it refines the taste and disciplines the judgment. Lord Bacon said but the truth, when he remarked that the history of the world without the history of letters would be as incomplete as a statue of Polyphemus deprived of his single eye.

Nor is this study without results of a direct practical bearing. Certainly all must appreciate the importance of understanding current allusions to the writers and literary works of other ages and countries, and must admit that some acquaintance at least with such writers and works is essential to a well-grounded knowledge of one’s own language and a correct estimate of its literature. But when is such an acquaintance to be obtained, if not during a school or college course? The engrossing duties of after-life leave little time for the pursuit of liberal studies. And how is such an acquaintance to be obtained? All are not linguists, and the greater part must get it second-hand—must avail themselves of the labors of others who have delved in these unfamiliar fields.

It is to facilitate and popularize this study of general literature by furnishing a complete and carefully condensed text-book on the subject, unencumbered by obscure names and wearisome details, that the volume now offered to the public has been prepared. It presents a full account of the literatures of ancient nations, and, treating of the origin and relationships of their respective languages, incidentally brings forward some of the most interesting facts of Comparative Philology. While the writings of Greece and Rome receive due attention, a new, and, it is believed, peculiarly valuable feature of the book will be found in its treatment of ancient Oriental literature—particularly the Sanscrit and Persian. The labors of European scholars during the last quarter-century have thrown a chain of living interest around the subject, and awakened on this side of the Atlantic as well a thirst for further knowledge, which it is here attempted to satisfy. The[Pg vi] principles of Egyptian writing are also explained; and the literary treasures

recently unearthed amid the ruins of the Nile Valley and elsewhere are described and illustrated.

In treating the subject the author has aimed, while giving a clear outline of each literature as a whole, to make its great writers stand out in bold relief, and to associate them in the pupil’s mind with the works that have made them immortal. With this view brief biographies, not fragmentary or isolated, but grafted on the narrative where they naturally belong, are accompanied with short specimens, carefully selected to give the best idea of each author’s style and genius. In the critical views as well as the historical facts presented, the latest authorities have been followed, and the aid of maps and illustrations has been freely resorted to for the better elucidation of points on which they could throw light.

The present volume has grown out of the author’s experience in the lecture-room; and in the belief that it is of a scope and grade that will meet the popular want, he now offers it to high-schools, academies, and colleges. From such institutions he feels that no class should graduate in ignorance either of the Greek and Roman classics which have inspired the modern poet and philosopher, or of those precious remains of once great Oriental literatures that patient scholars of the nineteenth century have brought to light—that helped to shape the Greek mind itself in the morning of the world. He trusts that it may foster in the young admiration of the brilliant thoughts that sparkle in the pages of ancient lore, a love of literature, and a taste for philological investigations.

Columbia College, June, 1878.

In order that the friends of this popular work on Ancient Literature may be advised of the progress made in philological study during the present decade, the author has thoroughly revised the text, diagrams, and maps. The value of the revision is enhanced by the introduction of a carefully selected bibliography; frequent references to standard monographs—not made to supply omissions, but as guides to those who may desire a full and authoritative course of collateral reading—are incorporated in the narrative. Attention is especially directed to the chapter on Egyptian writing and literature, for which the author is extensively indebted to F. C. H. Wendel, Ph.D. (Strasburg). The results of the vast amount of labor expended in this most interesting and important field during the ten years that have elapsed since the issue of this text-book, are here for the first time given to English readers. Other specialists have materially aided the author in his work of revision. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. H. T. Peck, Professor of

the Latin Language and Literature, and Dr. R. J. H. Gottheil, Professor of Syriac and Rabbinical Literature, Columbia College; to Drs. E. D. Perry and A. V. W. Jackson, instructors respectively in Sanscrit and Avesta, Columbia College; and to Dr. Chas. E. Moldehnke, the Egyptologist.

Columbia College, May 1, 1889.

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CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

(Pages 11-30.)

Definition and Divisions of Literature, page 11.—Origin and Relationship of Languages, 12.—The Aryans, 13.—Aryan Languages, 16.—Semitic Languages, 16.—Turanian Languages, 17.—Written Language, 18.—Ideographic Writing, 18.—Phonetic Writing, 19.—Modes of Writing and Pointing, 20.—Ancient Writing Materials, 21.—General View of Ancient Literature, 25.

PART I.

ANCIENT ORIENTAL LITERATURES.

Chapter I.—Hindoo Literature.

(Pages 31-60.)

Sanscrit Language, 31.—Sanscrit Alphabet, 32.—Sanscrit Researches, 33.—The Veda, 34.—The Upavedas, 35.—The Purânas, 35.—Social Life of the Vedic People, 37.—Code of Manu, 38.—Epic Poetry, 40.—The Râmâyana, 40.—The Mahâbhârata, 43.—Lyric and Didactic Poetry, 46.—Kalidâsa, 46.—Jayadeva, 48.—Gitagovinda, 49.—The Sanscrit Shakespeare, 50.—Sakoontalâ, 50.—The Hindoo Drama, 54.—Tales and Fables, 56.—History and Grammar, 57.—Buddhist Literature, 58.—Writing Materials of the Hindoos, 60.

Chapter II.—Persian Literature.

(Pages 60-67.)

Avesta Tongue, 60.—Zoroaster, 61.—The Avesta, 62.—Avesta Philosophy, 63.—Persian Inscriptions, 65.—Rock of Behistun, 65.—The Royal Library, 67.[Pg viii]

Chapter III.—Chinese Literature.

(Pages 67-83.)

Chinese Language, 67.—Chinese Writing, 68.—Antiquity of Chinese Literature, 69.—Confucius, 70.—The Chinese Classics, 73.—The Four Shoo, 77.—The Confucian Analects, 77.—Mencius, 79.—Spirit of the Chinese Classics, 80.—Lao-Tse, 82.

Chapter IV.—Hebrew Literature.

(Pages 83-104.)

The Semitic Languages and their Distribution, 84.—The Ancient Hebrew, 85.—Hebrew Alphabet, 86.—Spirit of Hebrew Poetry, 88.—Parallelism, 89.—Dawn of Hebrew Literature, 90.—The Books of Moses, 90.—The Historical Books, 92.—The Book of Job, 93.—Golden Age of Hebrew Poetry, 93.—The Psalms, 93.—Elegiac Poetry, 94.—Didactic Poetry, 95.—Prophetic Poetry, 96.—Silver Age, 97.—The Apocrypha, 99.—The Talmud, 100.

Chapter V.—Chaldean, Assyrian, Arabic, and Phœnician Literatures.

(Pages 104-117.)

Cuneiform Letters, 104.—Assyrio-Babylonian Writing Materials, 106.—Golden Age of Babylonian Literature, 107.—Deluge Tablets, 112.—Arabic Literature, 114.—Himyaritic Inscriptions, 114.—Phœnician Literature, 115.—Carthaginian Relics, 116.

Chapter VI.—Egyptian Literature.

(Pages 117-131.)

Egyptian Language, 118.—The Rosetta Stone, 119.—Hieroglyphic Writing, 120, 121.—Archaic Age of Egyptian Literature, 122.—Classical Age, 123.—Memoirs of Saneha, 124.—Tale of Snake Island, 125.—Minstrel’s Song, 126.—Golden Age, 126.—Book of the Dead, 126,127.—Hymns, 128.—Epic Poetry, 129.—Authorship, 130.

PART II.

GRECIAN LITERATURE.

Chapter I.—Birth of Grecian Literature.

(Pages 133-138.)

Early Settlement of Greece, 133.—Pelasgi and Hellenes, 134.—The Greek Language, 135.—Earliest Forms of Poetry, 137.—Legendary Poets, 138.[Pg ix]

Chapter II.—Age of Epic Poetry.

(Pages 139-156.)

Homer, 139.—The Iliad, 141.—The Odyssey, 147.—Minor Poems of Homer, 150.—Cyclic Poets, 152.—Hesiod and his Works, 152.—Poets of the Epic Cycle, 156.

Chapter III.—Lyric Poetry.

(Pages 157-178.)

Rise and Varieties of Lyric Poetry, 157.—Callinus, 159.—Tyrtæus, 160.—Archilochus, 161.—Æolic and Doric Schools, 163.—Alcæus, 164.—The Lesbian Poetesses, 164.—Sappho, 165.—Sappho’s Pupils, 171.—Anacreon, 172.—Simonides, 174.—Minor Lyric Poets, 177.

Chapter IV.—Rise of Greek Prose.

(Pages 178-184.)

Earliest Prose Writings, 178.—The Seven Sages, 179.—Solon, 179.—Thales, 180.—Æsop, 181.—Progress of Greek Prose, 182.—Early Philosophers and Historians, 183.

Chapter V.—Golden Age of Grecian Literature.

(Pages 184-262.)

The Attic Period, 184.—Pindar, 185.—Antimachus, 192.—Dramatic Poetry, 192.—Æschylus, 194.—“Prometheus Chained,” 196.—Sophocles, 200.—“King Œdipus,” 202.—Euripides, 207.—“Medea,” 209.—Greek Comedy, 212.—Aristophanes, 213.—“The Clouds,” 214.—“The Birds,” 219.—History, 221.—Herodotus, 222.—Thucydides, 225.—Xenophon, 229.—Ctesias and Theopompus, 233.—Philosophy, 234.—The Ionic and Italic Schools, 234.—Pythagoras, 235.—Empedocles, 236.—Xenophanes, 237.—Democritus, 237.—School of Epicurus, 238.—Pyrrho, the Skeptic, 238.—The Socratic School, 239.—Plato and the Academic School, 241.—“Phædo,” 244.—Aristotle and the Peripatetic School, 247.—Aristotle’s Writings, 248.—Theophrastus, 252.—The Stoic School, 253.—The Cynics, 254.—Oratory, 255.—Demosthenes, 256.—The Speech “On the Crown,” 257.—Æschines, 260.

Chapter VI.—The Alexandrian Period.

(Pages 262-280.)

Decline of Letters, 262.—The New Comedy, 263.—Menander, 264.—Philemon, 265.—Pastoral Poetry, 266.—Theocritus, 266.—Bion and Moschus, 269.—The Museum, 272.—The Alexandrian Library, 273.—Poetry at Alexandria, 274.—Callimachus, 274.—Apollonius Rhodius, 275.—Writers on Science, 276.—Critics and Grammarians, 277.—History, 277.—Polybius, 278.—The Septuagint, 279.

Chapter VII.—Later Greek Literature.

(Pages 230-302.)

Decay of Greek Genius, 280.—Writers of the First Century B.C., 281.—Writers[Pg x] of the First Three Christian Centuries, 284.—Plutarch, 285.—Lucian, 288.—Pausanias, 292.—Origen, 293.—Neo-Platonism, 293.—Longinus, 294.—Athanasius and Chrysostom, 294.—Novel writers, 295.—Hierocles, 295.—Byzantine Literature, 297.—The Greek Anthology, 297.—Gems of Greek Thought, 300.

PART III.

ROMAN LITERATURE.

Chapter I.—Latin and its Oldest Monuments.

(Pages 303-307.)

Italy Peopled, 303.—The Latin Language, 304.—Ancient Latin Relics, 305.

Chapter II.—Dawn of Roman Literature.

(Pages 307-329.)

Indebtedness of Rome to Greek Authors, 307.—The Roman Drama, 308.—Livius Andronicus, 309.—Cneius Nævius, 310.—Ennius, 311.—Plautus, 312.—“The Captives,” 313.—Terence, 315.—“The Self-Tormentor,” 317.—Decline of the Drama, 319.—Epic Poetry, 320.—Nævius and Ennius as Epic Poets, 320.—Satiric Poetry, 322.—Lucilius, 323.—Early Latin Prose, 324.—Cato the Censor, 324.—Lælius, Scipio, and the Gracchi, 326.—Antonius, Crassus, and Hortensius, 327.—Minor Historians and Orators, 328.

Chapter III.—Golden Age of Roman Literature.

(Pages 329-388.)

Periods of the Golden Age, 329.—Cicero, 330.—Varro, 337.—Julius Cæsar, 339.—Sallust, 343.—Cornelius Nepos, 347.—Poets of the Ciceronian Period, 348.—Lucretius, 348.—Catullus, 352.—Poetry of the Augustan Age, 354.—Virgil, 355.—Virgil’s Eclogues, 359.—Georgics, 360.—Æneid, 362.—Horace, 369.—Varius, 375.—Tibullus, 375.—Propertius, 377.—Ovid, 379.—Prose Writers of the Augustan Age, 382.—Livy, 382.

Chapter IV.—Age of Decline.

(Pages 388-428.)

Silver Age of Roman Letters, 388.—Velleius Paterculus, 389.—Valerius Maximus, 389.—Celsus, 390.—Phædrus, 390.—Persius, 392.—Seneca, 394.—Lucan, 397.—Pliny the Elder, 401.—Martial, 404.—Statius, 405.—Sulpitia, 406.—Quintilian, 407.—Juvenal, 408.—Tacitus, 412.—Suetonius, 415.—Pliny the Younger. 418.—Apuleius, 420.—Latin Fathers, 421.—Specimens of Later Latin Poetry, 423.—Gems of Latin Thought, 425.

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HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE.

INTRODUCTION.

Literature, in its broadest sense, comprises the written productions of all nations in all ages. It is the permanent expression of the intellectual power of man, and reflects the popular manners, the political condition, the moral and religious status. In its literary productions, a nation bequeaths to posterity an ever-speaking record of its inner life.

The history of literature traces the progress of the human mind from age to age, by landmarks erected by the mind itself. It represents the development of different phases of thought in written language, and shows their influence in moulding the public taste and morals. It investigates the connection between the literatures of different countries, considers the causes of their growth and their decay, and critically examines the works of individual authors.

Literature may be divided into two parts, Ancient and Modern. The former, to which this volume is devoted, includes the literatures of the ancient Oriental nations, the Greeks, and the Romans. To the second division belong the literatures of modern Europe, of the modern Oriental nations, and of America.

After considering the origin and relationship of languages,[Pg 12] we shall give a brief summary of the history of ancient literature as a whole, without national divisions; so that the reader, having previously followed the progress of letters from age to age and people to people, may be enabled to study more intelligently the separate literatures of the different countries.

ORIGIN AND RELATIONSHIP OF LANGUAGES.

The Dawn of History.—When the mist that envelops the early history of the world first rises, it discovers to our view, in parts of western Asia, communities more or less advanced in knowledge and the arts, gathered about certain centres of civilization; and others, of less culture, leading a wandering life, spent mostly, we may conjecture, in the chase, in predatory excursions, and the tending of herds. We find at this time a thrifty race, called Aryans (är’yanz), settled in the district between the Hindoo Koosh Mountains and the upper course of the Amoo—the ancient Bactria (part of what is now Turkestan and Afghanistan; see Map, p. 15). The region watered by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris was occupied by the forefathers of the Chaldeans and Assyrians, the Jews and Arabians; while over the plains of Tartary, known as Turan, wandering tribes were spread—whence their name, Turanians, swift horsemen. Corresponding with these three divisions of the human race are three distinct families of languages,—the Aryan or Indo-European, the Semitic,

and the Turanian,—embracing more than one hundred and fifty tongues. (See Rawlinson’s “The Origin of Nations.”)

In Africa, also, civilization was a plant of early growth, Egypt ranking among the most ancient monarchies. Europe, however, in these primeval ages, was either a tenantless wilderness or the home of rude adventurers like the Lapps and Finns, of whom the Basques in the Pyrenees are perhaps the only remnants in the west.

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THE ARYANS.

The Aryans have left no account of themselves sculptured on rocks or the walls of crumbling temples; but by careful study of the languages of Aryan origin we obtain, after the lapse of four thousand years, a glimpse of the social condition of those who spoke the mother-tongue among the mountains of Bactria. We infer that nouns similar in the various derived languages,—as father (protector), brother (helper), house, door, walls, boat, grain, etc.,—are the names of objects or notions familiar to the original family.[1] Thus utilizing language as a key to what would otherwise be locked up in the unknown past, we learn that the inhabitants of the fertile Bactrian valleys were devoted to agricultural pursuits. Tilling the ground was an honorable employment, the very name Aryan signifying high-born, noble. We have pictured to us law-abiding communities, grouped together in towns, ruled by chiefs and a king, recognizing family ties, entertaining exalted conceptions of woman, and a solemn regard for the marriage bond—the latter always a mark of high civilization.

Language also tells us that this interesting people preferred the arts of peace to war. With the dog for his companion, the shepherd folded his flocks of sheep; with the horse and ox for his servants, the landholder broke the soil with a plough of bronze. Pigs and fowls were raised; cattle formed the chief wealth; and the cows were milked by the daughter of the household—this name meaning milk-maid.

The Aryan drove from village to village in his wheeled car[Pg 14]riage, over well-constructed roads; worked the metals; plied the loom; moulded clay into pottery; and even navigated the neighboring waters in boats propelled by oars. He gave names to numbers as far as one hundred, was familiar with the principles of decimals, and took the moon for his guide in dividing the year into months.

A Supreme Being was worshipped in Bactria, the Great Unseen, the Creator and Governor of the world. In the reference to him of controversies that were difficult to settle, we trace the origin of the later trial by ordeal. Even some of our commonest stories are derived from fables current at least two thousand years B.C. in ancient Arya.

Aryan Migrations.—Few in number at first, the Aryans long lived peaceably together. But as the population grew denser, great bodies, either compelled to search for food in other lands or moved by a thirst for exploration, broke away at different periods from the cradle of their race, in quest of new abodes.